The Big Bang never happened

Thank you for David Pratt essay. I like the way he writes.


Once a singularity starts, the process breaks down matter to the finest particals than compaction.

If broken down to neutrons its would take so many hydrogen atoms 30,000,000,000,000,000,000.00 to fit in the same volume.I would pick this one because neutrons can be compacted close together.

If broken down to quaks

If broken down to electrons 18,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000.00

If Broken down to neutrinos,,,,,wowwwwwwwwww compaction
1/5 the size of an electron
100,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000.00

As for infinity I do not think it applies to a singularity.








Harry

<blockquote id="quote"><font size="2" face="Verdana, Arial, Helvetica" id="quote">quote:<hr height="1" noshade id="quote"><i>Originally posted by Tommy</i>
<br />

By far the most intriguing result of these initial studies was the suggestion that galaxy redshifts take on preferred or "quantized" values. First revealed in the Coma Cluster redshift vs. brightness diagram, it appeared as if redshifts were in some way analogous to the energy levels within atoms.

These discoveries led to the suspicion that a galaxy's redshift may not be related to its Hubble velocity alone. If the redshift is entirely or partially non-Doppler (that is, not due to cosmic expansion), then it could be an intrinsic property of a galaxy, as basic a characteristic as its mass or luminosity. If so, might it truly be quantized?
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People working with lasers study a lot of light matter interactions, in particular "parametric effects" which are coherent (that is the wave surfaces remain clean, no blurring of the images) and do not change permanently the state of the matter (the refraction is the simplest parametric interaction; the other require several beams). Obtaining these effects (frequency multiplication, frequency combinations...) requires generally complicated experiments, for instance getting the same wavelengths for two frequencies by the use of a crystal. But simple experiments are obtained using "ultrashort light pulses". This means usually femtosecond pulses, but the definition of ultrashort pulses given by G. L. Lamb Jr is "shorter than all relevant time constants", so that ordinary incoherent light may be considered as made of ultrashort pulses if the "relevant time constants" are longer than the time-incoherence of ordinary light, some nanoseconds. This requires a low pressure gas, and a resonance whose period is larger than some nanoseconds, that is a frequency of the order of 100 MHz. It is very difficult to find such a resonance in a well polulated state of a molecule. In astrophysics, it seems that only neutral atomic hydrogen in states 2S and 2P (say H*) works.

Where the physico-chemical conditions allow the presence of H* on the path of the light, there are anomalous frequency shifts; these conditions are:

i) Temperature T &gt; 100 000 K and sufficient pressure. Works close to the kernel of the quasars.

ii) T &gt; 10 000 K and Lyman alpha pumping to the 2P state. It is the most common case : works close to the quasars (very red objects, Arp's observations ... Explains the Lyman forest of the quasars. Who remarked that the fundamental periodicity 0.062 is found in the spectrum of hydrogen, the redshifts which puts the Ly beta and gamma lines to the alpha being 3*0062 and 4*0.062 respectively ?

iii) Cooling of a plasma of hydrogen (for instance solar wind : explains the "anomalous acceleration" of the Pioneer 10 and 11 probes by a transfer of energy from the solar light to the microwaves. Explains that the anisotropy of the "CMB" is bound to the ecliptic)

iv) Raman pumping in the symbiotic stars.

Try this magic stick !

<blockquote id="quote"><font size="2" face="Verdana, Arial, Helvetica" id="quote">quote:<hr height="1" noshade id="quote"><center>"Searching for the Universal Matrix in Metaphysics

Research News and Opportunities in Science and Theology 2, No. 8, p. 22

Templeton Foundation Press, April 2002

H. E. Puthoff, Ph.D.

Institute for Advanced Studies at Austin
Austin, Texas 78759</center>

Throughout mankind's cultural history there has existed the metaphysical concept that man and cosmos are interconnected by a ubiquitous, all-pervasive sea of energy that undergirds, and is manifest in, all phenomena. This pre-scientific concept of a cosmic energy goes by many names in many traditions, such as ch'i, ki or qi (Taoism), prana (yoga), mana (Kahuna), barakah (Sufi), élan vital (Bergsonian metaphysics), and so forth."

"Complementary to the above metaphysical concept, contemporary physics similarly posits an all-pervasive energetic field called quantum vacuum energy, or zero-point energy, a random, ambient fluctuating energy that exists even in so-called empty space."

"(The adjective zero-point means that such energy or activity exists even at a temperature of absolute zero where no thermal agitation effects remain.) Thus, even in the absence of matter, in the modern view empty space or vacuum is never truly particle or field free, but rather is the seat of continuous virtual particle-pair creation and annihilation processes, as well as so-called zero-point fluctuations of such fields as the electromagnetic field. Originally thought to be of significance only for such esoteric concerns as small corrections in atomic emission processes (e.g., the Lamb shift), it is now understood that vacuum fluctuation effects play a central role in large-scale phenomena of interest to technologists as well, such as the enhancement or inhibition of the spontaneous emission of light in atomic processes, the generation of short-range attractive forces between closely-spaced materials, and the possibility of extracting useful energy from vacuum fluctuations, the "Holy Grail" of energy research.

Should we further consider the possibility that such random vacuum energy might be subject to influence by consciousness or intention, then, given that it is well understood by physicists that a restructuring or "cohering" of vacuum energy would have physical consequences for matter, animate or inanimate, such could provide a rational basis for healing or other processes that are part and parcel of the pre-scientific view."

"In such fashion the similarities, differences and possible synthesis of the pre-scientific and modern concepts of an all-pervasive energy field can be considered.
As a physicist specializing in fundamental quantum physics and yet interested in these issues, I have an abiding interest in "pushing the envelope" with regard to the present scientific paradigm. This includes the issue as to whether what we know of the life process itself can find rapprochement with modern quantum physics, or whether and how it needs to be extended. Given my own earlier decade-plus background as Director of the Cognitive Sciences program at SRI Intern'l in the '70's and early '80's, investigating remote viewing and other so-called "paranormal" phenomena, the life-science data I have to integrate all by themselves push the envelope (Proc. IEEE 64, 329 (1976); Jour. Sci. Exploration 10, 63 (1996)."

"Unfortunately, as it now stands, mainstream physics reductionism is leading to an evermore complex picture of nature involving a proliferation of particles, the possibility of yet more "fundamental" forces, the implications of incorporating additional dimensions as in superstring theory, and so forth. Thus, in spite of efforts to develop a grand unified theory to simplify our picture of nature, the actual day-to-day work on this effort is complexifying faster than the hoped-for simplification. Therefore, not only are we missing holism on the grand scale, but a gratifying holism just for the physical sciences alone appears to be a rapidly accelerating goal post.

Contemplation of such provocative issues in both the physical and life sciences led me into investigating an area of physics concerned with what is known as quantum vacuum fluctuations or zero-point energy, a universal background energy pervading all of space and associated with fluctuations of underlying space itself.

Specifically, I began to consider the underlying quantum fluctuations as a fundamental "stuff" out of which a greater synthesis could be built. I hasten to add that I do not mean for such an approach to be simply reductionism on a grander scale, with no room for "nonphysical" factors to play a role. Rather, to the degree that "energy" is involved not only in physical but in nominally non- or para-physical phenomena (including, perhaps, such "mundane" phenomena as thought, charisma, etc., let alone psychokinesis), then such energy patterns might in principle emerge as a result of cohering or patterning the otherwise random, ambient zero-point energy.

For me this hypothesis emerged when I considered how uneconomical Nature would have to be to posit, on the one hand, an all-pervading energetic field of ki or chi, as in the metaphysics of the martial arts and acupuncture, and, on the other hand, also posit an all-pervasive energetic field of quantum zero-point energy. It appeared to me to be more likely that we were dealing with a single underlying substructure which goes by various names in various cosmologies, depending on whether it is in its pre-manifest random form, or patterned at various hierarchical levels, including the "purely material."

"In my third study (Phys. Rev. A 40, p. 4857, 1989; 44, pp. 3382 & 3385, 1991) I showed that on the cosmological scale a grand hand-in-glove dynamic equilibrium exists between the ever-agitated motion of matter on the quantum level and the surrounding zero-point energy field.

One consequence of this is that we are literally, physically, "in touch" with the rest of the cosmos as we share with remote parts of the universe fluctuating zero-point-energy fields of even cosmological dimensions. Who is to say whether, for example, modulation of such fields might not carry meaningful information as in the popular concept of "the Force?"

In a fourth study with colleagues from Lockheed, CIPA and Cal. State at Long Beach (Phys. Rev. A 49, 678,1994; The Sciences 34, 26, Nov/Dec 1994; Science 263, 612, 1994; Spec. in Sci. and Tech. 20, 99, 1997), we have shown that the simple property of inertia possessed by all bodies is simply resistance to being accelerated through the zero-point fluctuations, an extremely fundamental result in physics that provides an underpinning for Newton's Law of inertia."


"In a fifth study (Spec. in Sci. and Tech. 13, 247, 1990; Phys. Rev. E 48, 1562, 1993) I examined the evidence that not only is zero-point energy at the base of a number of fundamental physical phenomena, but that in principle non-polluting energy can be extracted from the fluctuations so as to constitute a new energy source; a concept for which my research group has attracted seed funding, obtained encouraging laboratory evidence, applied for and obtained patents worldwide, and which is the focus of a present in-house program.
Finally, in a sixth study (Phys. Essays 9, 156, 1996; Ad Astra 9, 42, 1997; Jour. Sci. Exploration 12, 295, 1998) I indicate how manipulation of the underlying zero-point-energy spacetime metric opens up the possibility for efficient interstellar propulsion, a concept well-received both in popular writings (e.g., Arthur C. Clarke) and by the mainstream (Air Force, NASA laboratories)."

"All of this characterizes the underlying, ambient, random quantum zero-point-energy sea as a blank matrix upon which coherent patterns can be written, such information constituting at the bottom end of the scale coherent particle and field structures, and, to a zero-point-energy chauvinist like myself, an ascending ladder of possible other information structures, whether it be coherent electromagnetic field structures around living organisms, possibly non-biochemical components of memory, or other more esoteric aspects of Nature. If my goal for this research comes to full fruition, what would emerge would be an increased understanding that all of us are immersed, both as living and physical beings, in an overall interpenetrating and interdependent field in ecological balance with the cosmos as a whole, and that even the boundary lines between the physical and "metaphysical" would dissolve into a unitary viewpoint of the universe as a fluid, changing, energetic/information cosmological unity."


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www.haltonarp.com/articles/pdf/pp-03-01.pdf
<blockquote id="quote"><font size="2" face="Verdana, Arial, Helvetica" id="quote">quote:<hr height="1" noshade id="quote">
<center>Research status

<b>Halton Arp</b>

1 Birth of galaxies</center>

Observed: <i>Ejection of high redshift,
from active galaxy nuclei.</i>

Shown by radio and X-ray pairs, luminous
connecting filaments. Emergent
than intrinsic redshift. S*****ing of Probabilities
of accidental association negligible.
for customarily supressed details.

Observed: <i>Evolution of quasars into normal companion galaxies.</i>

The large number of ejected objects enables a view
empirical evolution from high surface brightness quasars
through compact galaxies. From gaseous plasmoids to formation
of atoms and stars. From high redshift to low.

Observed: <i>Younger objects have higher intrinsic redshifts.</i>

In groups, star forming galaxies have systematically
higher redshifts, e. g. spiral galaxies. Even companions in
evolved groups like our own Andromeda Group or the nearby
M81 group still have small, residual redshift excesses relative
to their parent.

Observed: <i>X-ray and radio emission generally indicate
early evolutionary stages and intrinsic redshift.</i>

Plasmoids ejected from an active nucleus can fragment
or ablate during passage through galactic and intergalactic
medium which results in the forming of groups and clusters
of proto galaxies. The most difficult result for astronomers
to accept is galaxy clusters which have intrinsic redshifts.
Yet the association of clusters with lower redshift parents is demonstrated in Arp and Russell, 2001 [1]. Individual cases
of strong X-ray clusters are exemplified by elongations and
connections as shown in the ejecting galaxy Arp 220, in Abell
3667 and from NGC 720 (again, summarized in Arp, 2003
[4]). Motion is confirmed by bow shocks and elongation is
interpreted as ablation trails. In short — if a quasar evolves
into a galaxy, a broken up quasar evolves into a group of
galaxies.

<center>2 Redshift is the key</center>

Observed: <i>The whole quasar or galaxy is intrinsically redshifted.</i>

Objects with the same path length to the observer have
much different redshifts and all parts of the object are shifted
closely the same amount. Tired light is ruled out and also
gravitational redshifting.

The fundamental assumption: <i>Are particle masses constant?</i>

The photon emitted in an orbital transition of an electron
in an atom can only be redshifted if its mass is initially
small. As time goes on the electron communicates with more
and more matter within a sphere whose limit is expanding
at velocity c. If the masses of electrons increase, emitted
photons change from an initially high redshift to a lower
redshift with time (see Narlikar and Arp, 1993 [6])

Predicted consequences: <i>Quasars are born with high redshift
and evolve into galaxies of lower redshift.</i>

Near zero mass particles evolve from energy conditions
in an active nucleus. (If particle masses have to be created
sometime, it seems easier to grow things from a low mass
state rather than producing them instantaneously in a finished
state.)

DARK MATTER: <i>The establishment gets it right, sort of.</i>

In the Big Bang, gas blobs in the initial, hot universe
have to condense into things we now see like quasars and
galaxies. But we know hot gas blobs just go poof! Lots of
dark matter (cold) had to be hypothesized to condense the
gas cloud. They are still looking for it.

But low mass particles must slow their velocities in order
to conserve momentum as their mass grows. Temperature is
internal velocity. Thus the plasmoid cools and condenses
its increasing mass into a compact quasar. So maybe we have been observing dark matter ever since the discovery of
quasars! After all, what’s in a name?

Observed: <i>Ambarzumian sees new galaxies.</i>

In the late 1950’s when the prestigious Armenian astronomer,
Viktor Ambarzumian was president of the International
Astronomical Union he said that just looking at pictures
convinced him that new galaxies were ejected out of
old. Even now astronomers refuse to discuss it, saying that
big galaxies cannot come out of other big galaxies. But we
have just seen that the changing redshift is the key that
unlocks the growth of new galaxies with time. They are small
when they come from the small nucleus. Ambarzumian’s
superfluid just needed the nature of changing redshift. But
Oort and conventional astronomers preferred to condense hot
gas out of a hot expanding universe.

Observed: <i>The Hubble Relation.</i>

An article of faith in current cosmology is that the relation
between faintness of galaxies and their redshift, the Hubble
Relation, means that the more distant a galaxy is the faster it
is receding from us. With our galaxy redshifts a function of
age, however, the look back time to a distant galaxy shows it
to us when it was younger and more intrinsically redshifted.
No Doppler recession needed!

The latter non-expanding universe is even quantitative in
that Narlikar’s general solution of the General Relativistic
equations (m=t2) gives a Hubble constant directly in term
of the age of our own galaxy. (H0 =51 km/sec×Mpc for
age of our galaxy = 13 billion years).


Observed: The current Hubble constant is too large.

A large amount of observing time on the Hubble Space
Telescope was devoted to observing Cepheid variables whose
distances divided into their redshifts gave a definitive value
of H0 =72. That required the reintroduction of Einstein’s
cosmological constant to adjust to the observations. But
H0 =72 was wrong because the higher redshift galaxies
in the sample included younger (ScI) galaxies which had
appreciable intrinsic redshifts.

Independent distances to these galaxies by means of
rotational luminosity distances (Tully-Fisher distances) also
showed this class of galaxies had intrinsic redshifts which
gave too high a Hubble constant (Russell, 2002 [8]) In
fact well known clusters of galaxies gives H0’s in the 90’s
(Russell, private communication) which clearly shows that
neither do we have a correct distance scale or understanding
of the nature of galaxy clusters.

DARK ENERGY: <i>Expansion now claimed to be acceleration.</i>

As distance measures were extended to greater distances
by using Supernovae as standard candles it was found that
the distant Supernovae were somewhat too faint. This led
to a smaller H0 and hence an acceleration compared to
the supposed present day H0 =72. Of course the younger
Supernovae could be intrinsically fainter and also we have
seen the accepted present day H0 is too large. Nevertheless
astronomers have again added a huge amount of undetected
substance to the universe to make it agree with properties of
a disproved set of assumptions. This is called the accordance
model but we could easily imagine another name for it.

Continued at www.haltonarp.com/articles/pdf/pp-03-01.pdf

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Found at www.plasmacosmology.net/history2.html

<blockquote id="quote"><font size="2" face="Verdana, Arial, Helvetica" id="quote">quote:<hr height="1" noshade id="quote"><center>A Brief History of Plasma II </center>

"Facts do not cease to exist because they are ignored." Aldous Huxley

While we now know that the terms electro- and -magnetic go together, this was not always the case, and the relationship between electricity and magnetism was not always clear.

Michael Faraday, 1791-1867, was called a charlatan and a fraud when he announced that he could generate an electric current merely by moving a magnet in a coil of wire.


Why space is considered electrically neutral in mainstream science?

There seem to be five main reasons for this mistaken belief, and it represents the the main point of demarcation between Plasma and Big Bang cosmologies.

1. History:

When geniuses like Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) and Isaac Newton (1643-1727) formulated their theories very little was known about electricity. (Oil and gas provided the lighting back then.) A treatise had been written on magnetism, and some magnetism is incorporated in astronomical models, but the basis of mainstream theories remain the same -- they rely on gravity and inertia. They work on the mistaken premise that space is electrically sterile.

2. Misconceptions:

It is assumed that electrical forces in space cancel each other out. If, in some sense, we could step outside the universe and look in, then perhaps all of the electrical forces might cancel each other out, but on more localised scales this is simply not the case. As Alfven explained, it is necessary to map both electric currents and fields in addition to magnetic fields.

3. Psychology:

Belief is known to have a profound affect on perception. Witness the fact that euphemisms are employed to conform to the inertia of prior belief. The mainstream prefers to talk in terms of ion storms and electron rains rather than acknowledging the existence of electrical phenomena in space. See the technical section for explanations of some common misconceptions. So many astronomical phenomena scream 'Electricity', but sophistry is all too often employed to interpret them within the existing paradigm. The existence of Double layers -- an all important plasma phenomena (See technical) -- isn't even acknowledged in mainstream astronomy. The erroneous concept of magnetic reconnection is generally cited.

4. 'Charge separation in space is not possible'

Well, this is the mainstream view. Because the attractive electrical forces between electrons and ions are 39 orders of magnitude greater than the gravitational attraction between their masses, it is assumed that these particles quickly find each other and neutralise.

It is wrong, however, as we now observe charge separation in space. It is therefore important to stress that we should be working backwards from observation, and not forwards from some abstract theoretical starting point. Theories of the plasma universe do not begin with neutral matter. They begin with the observation that charges are already separated.

Filamentary Birkeland currents in plasma, and double layers et al are not even recognised in mainstream astronomy, let alone understood. And they call it the queen of the sciences.
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Found at www.plasmacosmology.net/tech.html

quote:

---

<center>Technical overview I[)] </center>

The following introduction to some technical terms should provide a reasonable insight into Plasma Physics. An underlying simplicity seems to beckon, even while many questions remain, and a picture drastically different from the traditional view of the universe begins to emerge.

The Solar Wind

The Earth's magnetic field acts much like a protective cocoon. Over and around this field flows the solar wind, the dilute but persistent stream of plasma (protons, electrons and other ions) emitted by The Sun. This flow of plasma, with its associated electromagnetic fields, distorts The Earth's own field, compressing it on the dayside and stretching it on the night side. The resulting field is called the magnetosphere.

Because the sun is seen to emit roughly equal quantities of ions and electrons, the solar wind is considered electrically neutral in mainstream circles. This can be an over simplification for a number of reasons.

Plasmas react with the extensive magnetic field lines in our solar system, and when conducting fluids flow through a magnetic field a dynamo can be created, with the electrical energy needed to drive the current taken from any relative motion. This is consistent with the laws of physics: If a closed circuit exists, parts of which are moving through a magnetic field while other parts are not, an electric current will arise. This is how dynamos work.


Magnetospheres

Magnetic forces are of little importance in our everyday lives and require a sensitive instrument like a compass needle to be detected. This is because most of the materials we encounter, from the ground we walk on to the air we breathe, are electrically neutral.
At 60 miles or more above the surface of the Earth, however, the situation is very different. The fringes of the atmosphere at these heights are dominated by plasmas which react with the earths magnetic field, steering and trapping the energised particles.

The intense activity in these regions is sometimes described as one of the first surprises of the space age, and the sheer scale of the magnetospheres of other planets has also taken many by surprise, consistent though they are with Plasma models.

Magnetospheres might be regarded as boundaries between interacting magnetic fields, but this can be a little misleading as comets also exhibit similar protective fields, visible as their comas, without having strong magnetic fields.

In plasma discharge models most objects form Langmuir sheaths that prevent direct contact with enveloping plasmas. Magnetospheres are therefore better regarded as complex forms of Langmuir Sheaths, or Double Layers (See 'Double Layers' below), with the magnetic field of the body contained within the sheath.


Magnetotails

In contrast to the dayside of the magnetosphere, which is compressed and confined by the solar wind, the night side is stretched into a long tear-shaped 'magnetotail'. This part of the magnetosphere is quite dynamic, where the ions and electrons are often energized (the magnetotail is the main source of the polar aurora).


The plasma sheath of Venus is extremely long, almost touching the Earth when the two planets are at their closest approach. NASA astronomers recently discovered 'stringy things' in the tail, as predicted by Birkeland.


Birkeland currents

Magnetic disturbances are usually observed during displays in auroral zones. These are localised and fade towards the equator, suggesting that currents flow nearby. Currents, of course, require closed circuits. Birkeland proposed that these currents flowed from space at one end of an auroral arc and returned to space at the other, flowing parallel to the ground when in proximity with The Earth.

Birkeland first made this proposal after returning from an expedition to an auroral zone in 1903, and it was confirmed by the US Naval satellite, Triad, in 1973. Its magnetometer detected two large sheets of electric current, down on the morning side of the auroral zone, and up on the evening side, as expected. Each sheet typically carries a million amperes or more.

Further: Enormous Birkeland currents connecting Jupiter and its moon Io were recorded by the Voyager spacecraft in 1979.

In 1984 Farhad Yusef-Azdeh, Don Chance, and Mark Morris discovered Birkeland currents on a galactic scale. Working with the Very Large Array radio telescope, they found an arc of radio emission some 120 light-years long near the centre of the Milky Way! The structure is made up of narrow filaments typically 3 light-years wide and running the full length of the arc. The strength of the associated magnetic field is 100 times greater than previously thought possible on such a large scale, but the field is nearly identical in geometry and strength to computer simulations of galaxy formation.


Current modes

Electric currents in plasma take on three basic modes -- dark, glow or arc -- depending on the voltage and charge density. In laboratory gas-discharge tubes, voltage and charge density vary non-linearly between the electrodes and produce segments that are alternately dark and glowing. The high-charge-density arc mode is used in industry for precision machining.


The plasma sheath of venus, mentioned above, is currently in dark mode.


Z-pinches

The plasma universe consists of swirling streams of electrons and ions flowing in filaments which tend to corkscrew or spiral. They self pinch from the magnetic fields that they generate around themselves.

In space these are referred to as Birkeland currents and are often found in pairs. There is a tendency for the pairs of filaments to compress between them any material (ionized or not) in the plasma. This is called the Z-pinch effect.

The bulk of the filaments are invisible from a distance, much like the Birkeland currents that circle the Earth are invisible from its surface, with the exception of auroral discharges.


Doubleness

The proclivity for multiple filaments to interact in pairs is a signature of electromagnetic forces and sometimes referred to as 'Doubleness'.
This behaviour derives from Ampére's Law or the Biot-Savart force law which states that currents in the same direction attract while currents in the opposite direction repel. They do so inversely in relation to the distance between them. This results in a far larger ranging force of interaction than the gravitational force between two masses. Gravitational force is only attractive and varies inversely with the square of the distance.


Electromagnetic force strength

While all matter is subject to gravity, plasma is more strongly affected by EM forces as is to be expected given its constituent parts -- negatively charged electrons and positively charged ions. In fact, the EM force is 10^39 times as strong! Plasma displays structures and motions that are far more complex than those found in neutral solids, liquids, and gases. It has a tendency to form the cellular and filamentary structures under discussion.

The following is quoted from from Dr A. Peratt's site

But perhaps the most important characteristic of electromagnetism is that it obeys the longest-range force law in the universe.

When two or more non-plasma bodies interact gravitationally, their force law varies inversely as the square of the distance between them; 1/4 the pull if they are 2 arbitrary measurement units apart, 1/9 the pull for a distance of 3 units apart, 1/16 the pull for 4 units apart, and so on.

When plasmas, say streams of charged particles, interact electromagnetically, their force law varies inversely as the distance between them, 1/2 the pull if they are 2 arbitrary measurement units apart, 1/3 the pull for a distance of 3 units apart, 1/4 the pull for 4 units apart, and so on. So at 4 arbitrary distance units apart, the electromagnetic force is 4 times greater than that of gravitation, relatively speaking, and at 100 units, apart, the electromagnetic force is 100 times that of gravitation.

Moreover, the electromagnetic force can be repulsive if the streams in interaction are flowing in opposite directions. Thus immense plasma streams measured in megaparsecs, carrying galaxies and stars, can appear to be falling towards nothing when they are actually repelling.





Double Layers

Plasma sheathes were discovered by Langmuir in his laboratory, and are now called double layers.
DLs refer to one of the most important properties of any electrical plasma -- its ability to form electrically isolated sections or cells. Because Plasma is an outstanding conductor and cannot sustain a high electric field, it self-organizes to form a protective sheath (Double Layer) across which most of the electric field is concentrated and where most of the electrical energy is stored (They can act very much like capacitors).

When a foreign object is inserted into a plasma, a DL will form around it, shielding it from the main plasma. This effect makes it difficult to insert voltage sensing probes into a plasma in order to measure any electric potential at a specific location.

Double layers may break down with an explosive release of electrical energy. Hannes Alfvén first suggested that billions of volts could exist across a typical solar flare DL.

Astrophysicists who map magnetic fields and assume there's no electricity in space (or little of any consequence) seem, somewhat inexplicably, to be unaware of their existence. They resort to positing any number of mechanical devices from 'magnetic reconnection' to 'frozen-in magnetic field lines' and more.
"In the beginning was the Plasma." Hannes Alfven

'Frozen-in Magnetic Fields'

The myth of 'frozen-in magnetic fields' still raises its head in the mainstream now and again, despite Alfven disposing of it many years ago. For years it was assumed that plasmas were perfect conductors and, as such, a magnetic field in any plasma would have to be 'frozen' inside it.
The basic technical reason for this arose from one of Maxwell's equations. It was thought that if all plasmas are ideal conductors they cannot have electric fields (voltage differences, inside them), and that any magnetic fields inside a plasma must therefore be 'frozen', that is unable to move or change in any way.

Further: Thanks to Alfven we now know that there can be voltage differences between different points in plasmas. He pointed this out in his acceptance speech when receiving the Nobel Prize for physics in 1970. The electrical conductivity of any material, including plasma, is determined by two factors: the density of the population of available charge carriers (the ions) in the material, and the mobility of these carriers. In any plasma, the mobility of the ions is extremely high. Electrons and ions can move around very freely in space. But the concentration of ions available to carry charge may not be at all high if the plasma is very low pressure or diffuse. In short, although plasmas are excellent conductors, they are not perfect. It therefore follows that weak electric fields can exist inside them, and magnetic fields are NOT frozen inside them.


'Magnetic reconnection'

Like the myth of 'Frozen in magnetic fields', Magnetic Reconnection is another colourful invention of conventional astronomy. It also attempts to account for anomalies arising from the misconception that electric currents do not flow in space.
In reality it is a well-understood plasma phenomena, relating to exploding double-layers and electric discharge. Astronomers have noticed that when magnetic reconnection occurs, there seem to be regions of electron-depleted space associated with it (Electric Currents). They have also noticed that a two-layer flow of particles is created that speeds the release of energy (Double Layers).


'Magnetars'

Magnetars are mathematical-models of stars based on 'frozen-in' magnetic fields and 'magnetic reconnection'. Need we say anymore? The math may be correct, but this does not guarantee that they reflect reality.

Plasma cosmologists know that magnetic fields do not stand alone -- they are induced by electric currents. There must be an intense electric current feeding the magnetar, and this current must be part of a circuit, as all electric circuits must be closed.
"Magnetic Reconnection is pseudo-science." Hannes Alfven

Power generation

Because plasmas are good, but not perfect, conductors, they are similar to wires in their ability to carry electrical current. It is well known that if any conductor cuts through a magnetic field, a current will flow in that conductor. This is how electrical generators and alternators work.

If there is any relative motion between a cosmic plasma, say in the arm of a galaxy, and a magnetic field in that same location, currents will flow in the plasma. These currents will, in turn, produce their own magnetic fields.

In 1986, Hannes Alfven postulated electrical models on both galactic and solar scales. Physicist Wal Thornhill has pointed out that Alfven's circuits are really scaled up versions of the familiar homopolar motor that serve as the watt-hour meters in many homes. Also, more recently, the interaction of the Moon Io with the giant planet Jupiter has been likened to a dynamo.

There is still some discussion as to whether galaxies require electrical power from external sources, but who can now reasonably deny that vast currents flow throughout space? For how much longer can this simple fact be overlooked and denied?

Granted, electric currents in space may be more difficult to measure than magnetic fields, but the 'truth is out there'.
"In order to understand the phenomena in a certain plasma region, it is necessary to map not only the magnetic but also the electric field and the electric currents." Hannes Alfven

Scaling Plasmas

Plasma phenomena are scalable. Their electrical and physical properties remain the same, independent of the size of the plasma. In a laboratory plasma, of course, things happen much more quickly than on, say, galaxy scales, but the phenomena are identical -- they obey the same laws of physics.
In other words we can make accurate models of cosmic scale plasma behaviour in the lab, and generate effects that mimic those observed in space. It has been demonstrated that plasma phenomena can be scaled to fourteen orders of magnitude. (Alfven hypothesised that they can be scaled to 28 orders or more!)

Electric currents flowing in plasmas produce most of the observed astronomical phenomena that remain inexplicable if we assume gravity and magnetism to be the only forces at work.


Plasma simulations

A world renowned electrical engineer, Dr Anthony C. Perratt -- a graduate student of Nobel Prize winner Hannes Alfven -- has worked on plasma simulations for many years. See the links page for further details of this leading light in Plasma Physics.
He has utilized super-computing capabilities to apply the Maxwell-Lorentz equations (the basic laws governing the forces and interactions of electric and magnetic fields) to huge ensembles of charged particles. He calls this PIC - Particle In Cell simulation. The results are almost indistinguishable from images of actual galaxies.


Peratt Instabilities

One of the latest and most important discoveries. These dynamic effects are observed to occur in intense Birkeland currents, arc discharges in plasma torches, z-pinched plasma filaments, and high energy electrical discharges. The instability takes on the shape of a column of axially symmetric toroids or spheroids that remain in a semi-stable state until disruption. These instabilities can also take on a sawtooth structure with a violent snaking motion.

Magnetohydrodynamics

The study of the dynamics of electrically-conducting fluids, one of many fields pioneered by Alfven, and perhaps one of his better known contributions within mainstream circles.


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